Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 07 – 23 The terms empirical, empiricism, and their derivatives have acquired multiple meanings throughout the history of philosophy and science. Although these meanings are historically related, they are not identical. Consequently, the mere assertion that a claim is “empirical” does not, by itself, specify either the method byContinue reading “Excursus 119 – On the Many Meanings of “Empirical””
Tag Archives: observation
Excursus 109 – Reality, Knowledge, and Epistemic Mediation
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 07 – 08 Every newspaper reports yesterday’s events. Every photograph shows a moment that has already passed. Even looking across a room takes a small amount of time for light to travel from the object to our eyes. Scientific knowledge is built upon observations that are obtained, interpreted, andContinue reading “Excursus 109 – Reality, Knowledge, and Epistemic Mediation”
Excursus 105 – On the Epistemological Function of Examples in Plato’s Dialogues
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 07 – 05 Readers approaching Plato for the first time are often struck by the kinds of questions that dominate his dialogues. Contrary to modern expectations, Socrates rarely investigates material objects or natural phenomena. Instead, his discussions almost invariably concern concepts: justice, courage, temperance, piety, friendship, beauty, knowledge, virtue,Continue reading “Excursus 105 – On the Epistemological Function of Examples in Plato’s Dialogues”
Excursus 066 – On the Four Epistemic Modes of Modern Science
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 07 – 18 Since the Scientific Revolution, observation and experiment have traditionally been regarded as the two principal sources of scientific knowledge. Observation acquires data from naturally occurring phenomena without deliberate intervention, whereas experiment generates data by systematically manipulating conditions to test specific hypotheses. These two modes formed theContinue reading “Excursus 066 – On the Four Epistemic Modes of Modern Science”
Excursus 061 – On Theory-Ladenness and Scientific Objectivity
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 07 – 18 During the twentieth century, philosophers of science increasingly emphasized that observation is theory-laden. Measurements, classifications, and experimental observations do not arise independently of prior concepts, assumptions, instruments, or methods of interpretation. Every observation presupposes some theoretical framework within which it acquires meaning. This recognition represented anContinue reading “Excursus 061 – On Theory-Ladenness and Scientific Objectivity”
Excursus 041 – The Productive Role of Imperfect Data
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 06 – 30 Some historians of science have suggested that the imperfections of Galileo’s telescopes, rather than hindering discovery, were in fact instrumental to his success. The blurred and edge-distorted images forced him to interpret what he saw conceptually, using geometry and analogy rather than photographic realism. Because theContinue reading “Excursus 041 – The Productive Role of Imperfect Data”
Excursus 025 – On Epistemological Distortion
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 06 – 30 The epistemological distortion identified by Bacon in Aphorism I:45 of the Novum Organum (1620)—the tendency of the human mind to impose order and correspondence where none existed—has numerous modern analogues. In theoretical physics, critics have argued that some highly mathematical theories risk allowing formal elegance andContinue reading “Excursus 025 – On Epistemological Distortion”
Excursus 015 – On Mathematical Analysis and in silico Experiments
Hossein Jorjani First publication: 2026 – 06 – 30 Bacon’s methodological framework assumed the universal applicability of experimentation, an assumption that modern science has found only partly sustainable. In many domains— including astronomy, evolutionary biology, cosmology, and historical human development —direct experimental manipulation of phenomena is not feasible, whether for practical or ethical reasons. InContinue reading “Excursus 015 – On Mathematical Analysis and in silico Experiments”
Hossein Jorjani 